Routine vaccination programs

Wallace, PhD 2 View author affiliations View suggested citation. Summary What is already known about this topic? What is added by this report? What are the implications for public health practice? Article Metrics.

Metric Details. Related Materials. PDF pdf icon [K]. Discussion Following high although stagnant routine vaccination coverage during —, a notable decline in global coverage for most vaccines occurred from to References World Health Organization. Immunization agenda a global strategy to leave no one behind.

Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; Routine vaccination coverage—worldwide, Addressing the persistent inequities in immunization coverage. Bull World Health Organ ;—8. Expanded programme on immunization. World Health Stat Q ;— Bull World Health Organ ;— Impact of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic on routine immunization services: evidence of disruption and recovery from countries and territories.

Planning guide to reduce missed opportunities for vaccination. Leave no one behind: guidance for planning and implementing catch-up vaccination. TABLE 1. TABLE 2. Questions or messages regarding errors in formatting should be addressed to mmwrq cdc.

If your herd has not encountered pinkeye, a general pinkeye vaccine should do the trick. But if you frequently deal with pinkeye, it could be worth it to invest in an autogenous pinkeye vaccine developed to target the strain of pinkeye running through your herd. You can give newborns a dose of selenium, vitamin D and multimin within the first two days of birth. All of these protect calves for about three months and hopefully avoid a lot of those early respiratory problems until you give them an injectable before turning them out to grass or weaning.

So, what should calves receive at weaning time? All calves should also receive an injectable virus pasteurella combination at or before weaning. At this time, apply dewormer and give them a seven-way clostridial vaccine that protects against black leg.

This booster after weaning provides the calf with one more level of protection. Are there any gender-specific measures to think about for calves? Purebred female calves should be Bangs-vaccinated to protect against brucellosis sometime between 4 and 8 months of age.

This is best done prior to weaning while they are still receiving support from their mamas to relieve stress. And commercial producers should think about castrating male calves sooner than later.

When my two sons were in vet school out at Kansas State University, one of their instructors said it best: The longer the testicles are attached to the calf, the more attached the calf becomes to the testicles. Plus, castrating bulls while on their mamas also helps create stress relief.

In VC against polio was MMR coverage was The increasing trend in VC has continued in Data confirm a positive impact of the law on coverage rates which increased for MMR and polio by, respectively, 3.

In December , French parliamentarians passed a law extending the vaccination mandates for children from 3 diphtheria, tetanus, and poliomyelitis to the 11 vaccinations included in the routine immunization schedule of children under 2 years old.

Children born from 1 January onwards are required to receive three doses of a hexavalent vaccine which includes diphtheria, tetanus, poliomyelitis, pertussis, Haemophilus influenza b, and hepatitis B antigens at ages 2 and 4 months, with a booster dose at 11 months; three doses of the vaccine against invasive pneumococcal diseases with the same schedule; two doses of a vaccine against meningococcal C diseases at ages 5 and 12 months; two doses of MMR vaccine at age 12 and 16—18 months [ 33 ].

The included studies examined the effect of this law on the vaccine coverage. The two studies from France, a survey and a registry analysis, come to the same conclusion, the positive effect of the law.

Cohen et al. Figure 2 and Table 2 show the impact of the mandatory vaccination law in France. Vaccination coverage for hexavalent and measles, mumps and rubella vaccines in France, — The authors add that the extension of mandatory vaccination has been well accepted by health care professionals and the general population. The authors indicate especially remarkable increasing trend seen for vaccination coverage of children too old to have been concerned by the mandates.

The increasing trend of vaccine coverage observed since has been weakened as a consequence of the pandemic in France [ 13 ]. The authors argue that to date, the new law on mandatory vaccination has no negative effect on vaccine coverage for vaccinations not yet concerned by the mandates or which remain recommended.

The law adopted to protect against measles and to strengthen vaccination prevention of 10 February is a German federal law that has been in force since 1 March With Art. It stipulates that all children from the age of one must provide evidence of the measles vaccination recommended by the Standing Vaccination Commission when entering kindergarten.

Students starting their first year of school also must prove measles vaccination [ 34 ]. Three registry analysis studies and one survey examine incidence and vaccine coverage before and after the introduction of the regulation. Endemic rubella has been eliminated in Germany since In , the number of measles cases in Germany has decreased by This is the lowest annual number of cases that has been reported to the RKI since the introduction of mandatory reporting in A backlog of cases at the health authorities was unlikely because at that time the measles protection law that came into force at the beginning of March meant that attention was high and acute measles cases belonged to the high-priority reporting categories in the federal states.

Furthermore, the influence of the Measles Protection Act on the decline in the number of cases from March onwards was assessed as low overall [ 14 ].

Neugebauer et al. According to the authors, the aim is to reach the parents who have not yet had their children vaccinated for other reasons. The responses from vaccine skeptics in this study show that they are willing to take on a lot before vaccinating their children.

The Measles Protection Act created a legally binding regulation that adults should be vaccinated against measles and thus the immunity can be significantly increased. The willingness of parents to vaccinate their children, on the other hand, is significantly lower.

The sanctions in the Measles Protection Act also seem to be able to improve little in this regard [ 15 ]. According to RKI, there has been a 7-fold decrease in measles cases in compared to , a 2. This trend continued in [ 16 ]. Table 3 shows the incidence of measles, mumps, and rubella in Germany in — Figure 3 shows the incidence of measles in Germany in — Number of cases of measles in Germany, — For data as of July 1st, Source: Robert Koch-Institute.

According to Matysiak-Klose D. In July , in response to the alarming drop in VC, the Italian Ministry of Health approved the law N , which has extended the number of mandatory vaccinations for school attendance from four to ten. In particular, vaccination against poliomyelitis, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, Hib disease, measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella became mandatory for kindergarten attendance.

For children and adolescents attending primary and secondary schools 6—16 years , monetary fines for families of unvaccinated children were imposed [ 35 ]. The included studies analyze the effect of this law on the national level four studies and regional level three studies. The review included five registry analysis studies, one retrospective, and one survey. The included articles examined the impact of vaccines mandates on vaccine coverage, incidence, and seroprevalence.

All the studies concluded that the effect of the law on these indicators was positive. Figure 4 shows measles vaccine coverage at 24 months of age. Measles vaccine coverage at 24 months of age, Italy, — The increase has been consistent—although at different rates—in all regions and is highest for MMR vaccine, as compared to other vaccines.

The increasing trend in vaccine coverage has continued in Table 4 shows vaccination coverage and incidence for the diseases covered in this section in Italy in — Vaccination coverage and number of cases of measles, mumps, and rubella in Italy, — However, Gori et al. Thus, it is important to combine these measures with information campaigns and political initiatives at different levels, both national and regional [ 20 ]. Furthermore, VC for measles-containing vaccine increased by 5.

The authors point out that compared to previous years, a dramatic increase in the incidence of measles was observed in , when measles incidence reached In , measles incidence decreased to The study conducted by Gianfedi et al.

The authors argue that this decrease is likely due to the introduction of the law increasing the number of mandatory vaccinations. Furthermore, Signorelli et al. Therefore, the data suggest that the policy of suspending mandatory vaccination to encourage proactive vaccine uptake has not been successful [ 22 ]. Four registry analysis studies on Latvia report vaccine coverage and incidence.

A wave of increasing incidence of diphtheria was observed in Therefore, diphtheria incidence decreased in Latvia from Diphtheria was kept under control in the next years. Heininger at al. According to the WHO report, the coverage for all the vaccines included in this systematic review increased in and There was a dramatic increase of incidence of mumps and pertussis in The incidence continued growing in and and decreased in the next years [ 27 ]. The data show overall positive effect of the introduced regulation, especially on vaccine coverage.

Table 5 shows vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Latvia in — Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus vaccine coverage children ages 12—23 months in Latvia, — Data: WHO. Vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Latvia, — In , the Parliament of Moldova passed the Law on State Surveillance of Public Health requiring children to receive all vaccines in the national schedule to enroll in kindergartens and schools [ 37 ].

Three registry analysis studies on Moldova examined vaccine coverage and incidence. In the period of —, the incidence of measles dropped sharply, with a total of cases reported, that is, the average annual incidence was 12 cases.

No measles cases were reported in — Melnik et al. Figure 7 shows measles incidence and VC in Moldova in — The number of measles cases and coverage of measles immunization for children aged 15 months in the Republic of Moldova, — Source: Melnik A. The authors argue that the use of highly effective modern measles vaccines and the vaccination policy made it possible to achieve in Moldova the status of a country that eliminated measles in — [ 29 ].

The incidence of pertussis dropped in — from 47 to 31 cases and increased in the following years. Progressive reduction of the vaccine coverage observed in —, from The data from the WHO surveillance report show no clear effect associated with the introduction of the regulation.

The trends in coverage and incidence are uneven: with coverage for some vaccines remaining the same in the year of introduction, some—increasing and some—decreasing [ 27 ]. Table 6 shows vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Moldova in — Vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Moldova, — According to this Law, compulsory immunization is one of the measures for protection of the population from infectious diseases.

It regulates fines for people who refuse immunization. Doctors are also subject to penalties if they oppose mandatory vaccination [ 38 ]. Three studies on Serbia analyze vaccine coverage, incidence, and seroprevalence, at regional and national levels. Patic et al. Coverage with the second dose of MMR increased significantly since Ristic et al.

Table 7 shows vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Serbia in — Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus vaccine coverage children ages 12—23 months in Serbia, — Measles vaccine coverage children ages 12—23 months in Serbia, — Vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Serbia, — The incidence of measles dropped significantly in compared to from to 11 with a subsequent increase and topping in and only 22 in The incidence of mumps gradually decreased from The incidence of pertussis has increased from through The incidence of rubella decreased from [ 27 ].

Therefore, the data from these studies suggest that the law caused an immediate negative effect on the vaccine coverage with subsequent stabilization in the next years and even moderate increase in the coverage. This trend has been reflected in the incidence.

Since , the provisions of article 15 of the Law on the Protection of the Population from Infectious Diseases stipulate that children who have not been vaccinated in accordance with the national immunization schedule are prohibited from attending educational institutions [ 39 ]. The two government reports analyze data on vaccine coverage and incidence. Table 8 shows vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Ukraine in — Vaccination coverage and number of cases of corresponding diseases in Ukraine, — There has been a significant increase in vaccine coverage in compared to Polio vaccine coverage increased by 12 percentage points, DTP by 11 percentage points, HepB by 29 percentage points, and Hib by 25 percentage points.

In the incidence of diphtheria increased from 10 to 21 cases and the incidence of pertussis by 4. The spread of measles slowed down in , with an increase of 7. In , a dramatic reduction in the incidence of all the diseases covered by this review has been reported. The effect of COVID preventive measures on the incidence of diseases covered by this review is evident.

Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the incidence of measles and HepB3 vaccine coverage in Ukraine. Number of reported measles cases in Ukraine, — Vaccine coverage with three doses of the hepatitis B vaccine one-year-old children in Ukraine, — The data show positive effect of the vaccination policy on vaccine coverage, in line with the incidence data and do not indicate any major negative effect neither on vaccine coverage nor on incidence. The impact of the COVID pandemic should be considered while analyzing vaccine coverage and incidence data, especially in the countries that have recently introduced children vaccine mandates.

Regarding the incidence of the diseases covered by vaccination mandates, Germany and Ukraine demonstrate dramatic reduction in April 10; 69 14 — Lancet Child Adolesc Health.

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